course hero, what are the drawbacks to the manuscript delivery method? (choose 3)

Chapter 3: Methods of pedagogy: campus-focused

3.6 Experiential learning: learning by doing (2)

In fact, in that location are a number of unlike approaches or terms within this wide heading, such as experiential learning, co-operative learning, adventure learning and apprenticeship.  I will use the term 'experiential learning' as a wide umbrella term to cover this broad diversity of approaches to learning by doing.

 iii.6.1. What is experiential learning?

At that place are many different theorists in this area, such as John Dewey (1938) and more than recently David Kolb (1984).

Simon Fraser University defines experiential learning as:

"the strategic, agile engagement of students in opportunities to acquire through doing, and reflection on those activities, which empowers them to apply their theoretical knowledge to practical endeavours in a multitude of settings within and outside of the classroom."

There is a wide range of design models that aim to embed learning within existent world contexts, including:

• laboratory, workshop or studio work;
• apprenticeship;
• trouble-based learning;
• case-based learning;
• project-based learning;
• inquiry-based learning;
• cooperative (work- or community-based) learning.

The focus here is on some of the main means in which experiential learning can be designed and delivered, with particular respect to the use of applied science, and in ways that help develop the cognition and skills needed in a digital age. (For a more than detailed analysis of experiential learning, encounter Moon, 2004).

iii.6.ii Core pattern principles

Experiential learning focuses on learners reflecting on their experience of doing something, so as to gain conceptual insight as well every bit applied expertise. Kolb'south experiential learning model suggest four stages in this process:

• agile experimentation;
• concrete experience;
• reflective observation;
• abstract conceptualization.

Experiential learning is a major form of pedagogy at the Academy of Waterloo. Its web site lists the atmospheric condition needed to ensure that experiential learning is effective, every bit identified past the Clan for Experiential Education.

Ryerson Academy in Toronto is another establishment with all-encompassing use of experiential learning, and also has an extensive web site on the topic, also directed at instructors. The next section examines different means in which these principles have been applied.

 three.6.three Experiential design models

In that location are many different design models for experiential learning, simply they also have many features in common.

 3.half-dozen.3.1 Laboratory, workshop or studio work

Effigy 3.six.3.1 Concordia Academy woods shop

Today, we take almost for granted that laboratory classes are an essential part of didactics science and engineering. Workshops and studios are considered disquisitional for many forms of trades training or the development of creative arts. Labs, workshops and studios serve a number of important functions or goals, which include:

• to requite students easily-on experience in choosing and using mutual scientific, engineering or trades equipment accordingly;
• to develop motor skills in using scientific, engineering or industrial tools or creative media;
• to requite students an understanding of the advantages and limitations of laboratory experiments;
• to enable students to come across science, engineering or trade work 'in action';
• to enable students to test hypotheses or to see how well concepts, theories, procedures actually work when tested under laboratory atmospheric condition;
• to teach students how to design and/or conduct experiments;
• to enable students to design and create objects or equipment in different physical media.

An important pedagogical value of laboratory classes is that they enable students to move from the concrete (observing phenomena) to the abstruse (understanding the principles or theories that are derived from the observation of phenomena). Some other is that the laboratory introduces students to a critical cultural aspect of science and engineering, that all ideas need to be tested in a rigorous and particular manner for them to exist considered 'truthful'.

1 major criticism of traditional educational labs or workshops is that they are limited in the kinds of equipment and experiences that scientists, engineers and trades people need today. As scientific, engineering and trades equipment becomes more sophisticated and expensive, it becomes increasingly difficult to provide students in schools especially but increasingly now in colleges and universities direct access to such equipment. Furthermore traditional teaching labs or workshops are capital and labour intensive and hence do not scale easily, a disquisitional disadvantage in rapidly expanding educational opportunities.

Considering laboratory work is such an accepted part of science didactics, it is worth remembering that pedagogy science through laboratory work is in historical terms a fairly recent development. In the 1860s neither Oxford nor Cambridge University were willing to teach empirical scientific discipline. Thomas Huxley therefore developed a programme at the Majestic School of Mines (a constituent higher of what is now Royal College, of the University of London) to teach school-teachers how to teach scientific discipline, including how to design laboratories for teaching experimental science to school children, a method that is still the most normally used today, both in schools and universities.

At the aforementioned time, scientific and engineering progress since the nineteenth century has resulted in other forms of scientific testing and validation that have identify exterior at least the kind of 'moisture labs' so common in schools and universities. Examples are nuclear accelerators, nanotechnology, quantum mechanics and space exploration. Oftentimes the only fashion to observe or record phenomena in such contexts is remotely or digitally. It is also important to exist articulate virtually the objectives of lab, workshop and studio work. There may now be other, more than practical, more economic, or more than powerful ways of achieving these objectives through the use of new technology, such as remote labs, simulations, and experiential learning. These volition be examined in more detail later in this book.

3.half dozen.iii.2 Problem-based learning

The earliest course of systematised problem-based learning (PBL) was developed in 1969 by Howard Barrows and colleagues in the School of Medicine at McMaster University in Canada, from where it has spread to many other universities, colleges and schools. This approach is increasingly used in subject domains where the knowledge base of operations is speedily expanding and where it is impossible for students to main all the noesis in the domain within a express menstruum of study. Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may pb to resolution of the trouble. The part of the instructor (ordinarily called a tutor in classic PBL) is critical in facilitating and guiding the learning process.

Usually PBL follows a strongly systematised approach to solving issues, although the detailed steps and sequence tend to vary to some extent, depending on the subject domain. The following is a typical example:

Effigy 3.vi.three.2 (derived from Gijeselaers, 1995)

Traditionally, the first v steps would exist done in a minor face up-to-face class tutorial of 20-25 students, with the sixth pace requiring either individual or pocket-size group (four or five students) private study, with a the 7th step being accomplished in a full group meeting with the tutor. However, this arroyo also lends itself to blended learning in detail, where the enquiry solution is washed mainly online, although some instructors take managed the whole process online, using a combination of synchronous web conferencing and asynchronous online discussion.

Developing a complete problem-based learning curriculum is challenging, as problems must be advisedly chosen, increasing in complexity and difficulty over the course of study, and issues must be chosen and then every bit to cover all the required components of the curriculum. Students oftentimes observe the trouble-based learning approach challenging, especially in the early stages, where their foundational cognition base may non be sufficient to solve some of the problems. (The term 'cognitive overload' has been used to describe this situation.) Others fence that lectures provide a quicker and more condensed mode to cover the same topics. Assessment also has to exist advisedly designed, specially if a final exam carries heavy weight in grading, to ensure that problem-solving skills likewise as content coverage are measured.

Even so, research (come across for case, Strobel and van Barneveld, 2009) has constitute that problem-based learning is better for long-term memory of cloth and developing 'replicable' skills, equally well every bit for improving students' attitudes towards learning. There are now many variations on the 'pure' PBL approach, with bug being set after initial content has been covered in more than traditional ways, such as lectures or prior reading, for instance.

3.6.3.3 Example-based learning

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and cogitating judgment by reading and discussing circuitous, existent-life scenarios.

University of Michigan Centre for Inquiry on Teaching and Learning

Case-based learning is sometimes considered a variation of PBL, while others see it as a design model in its own right. Equally with PBL, case-based learning uses a guided inquiry method, but usually requires the students to accept a degree of prior knowledge that can assist in analysing the example. There is usually more flexibility in the approach to example-based learning compared to PBL. Case-based learning is peculiarly pop in business education, police schools and clinical practice in medicine, only tin can be used in many other subject domains.

Herreid (2004) provides eleven basic rules for case-based learning.

1. Tells a story.
2. Focuses on an interest-arousing result.
3. Ready in the past five years
4. Creates empathy with the central characters.
5. Includes direct quotations from the characters.
6. Relevant to the reader.
7. Must accept pedagogic utility.
8. Conflict provoking.
9. Decision forcing.
10. Has generality.
11. Is short.

Using examples from clinical practice in medicine, Irby (1994) recommends five steps in case-based learning:

• anchor teaching in a (carefully chosen) case;
• actively involve learners in discussing, analysing and making recommendations regarding the instance;
• model professional person thinking and activeness every bit an teacher when discussing the instance with learners;
• provide direction and feedback to learners in their discussions;
• create a collaborative learning environment where all views are respected.

Example-based learning can be particularly valuable for dealing with circuitous, interdisciplinary topics or issues which have no obvious 'right or wrong' solutions, or where learners need to evaluate and decide on competing, alternative explanations. Case-based learning can also work well in both blended and fully online environments. Marcus, Taylor and Ellis (2004) used the following design model for a case-based blended learning project in veterinarian scientific discipline:

Effigy 3.vi.iii.3 Composite learning sequence involving online learning resource, Marcus, Taylor and Ellis, 2004

Other configurations are of course as well possible, depending on the requirements of the subject.

3.6.iii.4 Projection-based learning

Project-based learning is similar to case-based learning, merely tends to exist longer and broader in telescopic, and with even more than educatee autonomy/responsibility in the sense of choosing sub-topics, organising their work, and deciding on what methods to employ to conduct the project. Projects are ordinarily based around existent globe bug, which requite students a sense of responsibility and ownership in their learning activities.

Once again, in that location are several best practices or guidelines for successful projection work. For instance, Larmer and Mergendoller (2010) argue that every good project should meet two criteria:

• students must perceive the work every bit personally meaningful, as a task that matters and that they want to do well;
• a meaningful project fulfills an educational purpose.

The main danger with projection-based learning is that the projection can take on a life of its own, with not only students only the instructor losing focus on the key, essential learning objectives, or important content areas may non get covered. Thus project-based learning needs careful design and monitoring by the instructor.

iii.6.3.v Enquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is like to project-based learning, only the office of the instructor/instructor is somewhat different. In project-based learning, the teacher decides the 'driving question' and plays a more active role in guiding the students through the process. In inquiry-based learning, the learner explores a theme and chooses a topic for research, develops a programme of inquiry and comes to conclusions, although an instructor is usually available to provide assistance and guidance when needed.

Banchi and Bong (2008) propose that there are different levels of enquiry, and students need to begin at the beginning level and work through the other levels to become to 'true' or 'open' inquiry as follows:

Figure iii.6.3.5 Levels of inquiry-based learning, from Banchi and Bong (2008)

It can be seen that the quaternary level of inquiry describes the graduate thesis process, although proponents of inquiry-based learning take advocated its value at all levels of education.

3.6.iv Experiential learning in online learning environments

Advocates of experiential learning are frequently highly critical of online learning, because, they debate, information technology is incommunicable to embed learning in real world examples. However, this is an oversimplification, and there are contexts in which online learning can be used very finer to support or develop experiential learning, in all its variations:

• composite or flipped learning: although group sessions to start off the process, and to bring a problem or project to a conclusion, are usually done in a classroom or lab setting, students tin increasingly conduct the enquiry and information gathering by accessing resources online, by using online multimedia resources to create reports or presentations, and by collaborating online through grouping project work or through critique and evaluation of each other'south work;
• fully online: increasingly, instructors are finding that experiential learning can exist applied fully online, through a combination of synchronous tools such every bit web conferencing, asynchronous tools such as discussion forums and/or social media for grouping work, eastward-portfolios and multimedia for reporting, and remote labs for experimental work.

Indeed, there are circumstances where it is impractical, besides dangerous, or as well expensive to utilize existent world experiential learning. Online learning can exist used to simulate existent weather and to reduce the time to primary a skill. Flight simulators take long been used to train commercial pilots, enabling trainee pilots to spend less fourth dimension mastering fundamentals on real aircraft. Commercial flight simulators are still extremely expensive to build and operate, simply in recent years the costs of creating realistic simulations has dropped dramatically.

Figure 3.half-dozen.4 Virtual world border crossing, Loyalist Higher, Ontario

Instructors at Loyalist College have created a 'virtual' fully functioning edge crossing and a virtual car in Second Life to train Canadian Edge Services Agents. Each educatee takes on the function of an agent, with his/her avatar interviewing the avatars of the travellers wishing to enter Canada. All advice is washed by voice communications in Second Life, with the people playing the travellers in a separate room from the students. Each student interviews three or four travellers and the unabridged class observes the interactions and discusses the situations and the responses. A secondary site for auto searches features a virtual car that can exist completely dismantled so students acquire all possible places where contraband may exist curtained. This learning is and then reinforced with a visit to the motorcar shop at Loyalist College and the search of an actual automobile. The students in the customs and clearing track are assessed on their interviewing techniques as part of their final grades. Students participating in the first year of the Second Life border simulation achieved a course continuing that was 28 per cent higher than the previous class who did not utilize a virtual world. The side by side grade, using 2d Life, scored a further nine per cent college. More details can exist found hither.

Staff in the Emergency Direction Division at the Justice Constitute of British Columbia accept adult a simulation tool chosen Praxis that helps to bring critical incidents to life past introducing existent-earth simulations into training and exercise programs. Because participants tin can admission Praxis via the web, it provides the flexibility to deliver immersive, interactive and scenario-based grooming exercises anytime, anywhere. A typical emergency might be a major fire in a warehouse containing dangerous chemicals. 'Trainee' first responders, who will include fire, police and paramedical personnel, too as city engineers and local authorities officials, are 'alerted' on their mobile phones or tablets, and accept to respond in real time to a fast developing scenario, 'managed' by a skilled facilitator, post-obit procedures previously taught and too available on their mobile equipment. The whole procedure is recorded and followed afterward by a confront-to-face debriefing session.

Once once again, blueprint models are not in most cases dependent on whatever particular medium. The educational activity transfers easily across different delivery methods. Learning by doing is an important method for developing many of the skills needed in a digital age.

three.vi.5 Strengths and weaknesses of experiential learning models

How one evaluates experiential learning designs depends partly on 1's epistemological position. Constructivists strongly support experiential learning models, whereas those with a stiff objectivist position are unremarkably highly skeptical of the effectiveness of this approach. Nevertheless, trouble-based learning in particular has proved to exist very popular in many institutions teaching science or medicine, and project-based learning is used beyond many subject field domains and levels of education. At that place is evidence that experiential learning, when properly designed, is highly engaging for students and leads to improve long-term memory. Proponents also claim that information technology leads to deeper agreement, and develops skills for a digital age such as problem-solving, critical thinking, improved communications skills, and cognition direction. In detail, it enables learners to manage improve highly complex situations that cross disciplinary boundaries, and bailiwick domains where the boundaries of cognition are difficult to manage.

Critics though such as Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) debate that educational activity in experiential learning is oftentimes 'unguided', and pointed to several 'meta-analyses' of the effectiveness of problem-based learning that indicated no deviation in trouble-solving abilities, lower basic science exam scores, longer study hours for PBL students, and that PBL is more plush. They conclude:

In so far as there is whatsoever evidence from controlled studies, it virtually uniformly supports straight, stiff instructional guidance rather than constructivist-based minimal guidance during the instruction of novice to intermediate learners. Even with students with considerable prior knowledge, strong guidance when learning is most oft found to be every bit constructive as unguided approaches.

Certainly, experiential learning approaches crave considerable re-structuring of didactics and a great deal of detailed planning if the curriculum is to exist fully covered. Information technology normally ways extensive re-preparation of kinesthesia, and conscientious orientation and preparation of students. I would besides agree with Kirschner et al. that just giving students tasks to do in real world situations without guidance and back up is likely to be ineffective.

However, many forms of experiential learning tin and do have strong guidance from instructors, and i has to exist very careful when comparing matched groups that the tests of knowledge include measurement of the skills that are claimed to be adult by experiential learning, and are not just based on the same assessments every bit for traditional methods, which often accept a heavy bias towards memorisation and comprehension.

On rest then, I would support the utilise of experiential learning for developing the knowledge and skills needed in a digital historic period, but as ever, information technology needs to be done well, following best practices associated with the design models.

Action 3.6 Assessing experiential design models

1. If you accept experiences with experiential learning, what worked well and what didn't?

2. Are the differences between problem-based learning, case-based learning, project-based learning and inquiry-based learning meaning, or are they really merely minor variations on the same design model?

3. Practise you accept a preference for whatever one of the models? If so, why?

four. Exercise you lot agree that experiential learning can be done just as well online equally in classrooms or in the field? If not, what is the 'uniqueness' of doing it face-to-face up that cannot be replicated online? Can you give an example?

v. Kirschner, Sweller and Clark's newspaper is a powerful condemnation of PBL. Read it in full, and then decide whether or not you share their conclusion, and if not, why not.

References

Banchi, H., and Bell, R. (2008). The Many Levels of InquiryScience and Children, Vol. 46, No. 2

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience & Educational activity. New York, NY: Kappa Delta Pi

Gijselaers, Due west., (1995) 'Perspectives on trouble-based learning' in Gijselaers, West, Tempelaar, D, Keizer, P, Blommaert, J, Bernard, E & Kapser, H (eds) Educational Innovation in Economics and Business Administration: The Case of Problem-Based Learning. Dordrecht, Kluwer.

Herreid, C. F. (2007). Start with a story: The case study method of teaching college science. Arlington VA: NSTA Press.

Irby, D. (1994) Three exemplary models of example-based teaching Academic Medicine, Vol. 69, No. 12

Kirshner, P., Sweller, J. amd Clark, R. (2006) Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Research-Based TeachingEducational Psychologist, Vo. 41, No.ii

Kolb. D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience every bit the source of learning and development Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall

Larmer, J. and Mergendoller, J. (2010) Vii essentials for project-based learning Educational Leadership, Vol. 68, No. 1

Marcus, One thousand. Taylor, R. and Ellis, R. (2004) Implications for the design of online example-based learning activities based on the student blended learning feel: Perth, Australia: Proceedings of the ACSCILITE conference, 2004

Moon, J.A. (2004) A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning: Theory and Do New York: Routledge

Strobel, J. , & van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL More Effective? A Meta-synthesis of Meta-analyses Comparing PBL to Conventional Classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, Vol. 3, No. ane

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